T. Hartley, E. Maguire, H. Spiers, and N. Burgess, The well-worn route and the path less travelled: distinct neural bases of route following and wayfinding in humans, Neuron, vol.37, pp.877-88, 2003.

G. Aguirre, D. Esposito, and M. , Topographical disorientation: a synthesis and taxonomy, Brain, vol.122, pp.1613-1641, 1999.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/122.9.1613

URL : https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-pdf/122/9/1613/917131/1221613.pdf

J. Barrash, A historical review of topographical disorientation and its neuroanatomical correlates, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, vol.20, pp.807-834, 1998.
DOI : 10.1076/jcen.20.6.807.1114

A. A. Rizzo and J. G. Buckwalter, Virtual reality and cognitive assessment and rehabilitation: the state of the art, Stud Health Technol Inform, vol.44, pp.123-169, 1997.

S. G. Vandenberg and A. R. Kuse, Mental rotations, a group test, 1978.
DOI : 10.1037/t06625-000

M. Hegarty, D. R. Montello, A. E. Richardson, T. Ishikawa, and K. Lovelace, Spatial abilities at different scales: individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning, Intelligence, vol.34, pp.151-76, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.005

URL : http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/%7Ehegarty/papers/Spacewhiz.pdf

L. A. Cushman, K. Stein, and C. J. Duffy, Detecting navigational deficits in cognitive aging and Alzheimer disease using virtual reality, Neurology, vol.71, pp.888-95, 2008.
DOI : 10.1212/01.wnl.0000326262.67613.fe

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2676944?pdf=render

A. Rizzo, M. Schultheis, K. Kerns, and C. Mateer, Analysis of assets for virtual reality applications in neuropsychology, Neuropsychol Rehabil, vol.14, pp.207-246, 2004.

S. Lithfous, A. Dufour, and O. Despres, Spatial navigation in 798 normal aging and the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease: 799 insights from imaging and behavioral studies, Ageing Res Rev, vol.800, pp.201-214, 2012.

D. Head and M. Isom, Age effects on wayfinding and route learning skills, Behav Brain Res, vol.209, pp.49-58, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.01.012

N. Yamamoto and G. J. Degirolamo, Differential effects of aging on spatial learning through exploratory navigation and map reading, Front Aging Neurosci, vol.14, p.14, 2012.

S. D. Moffat, K. M. Kennedy, K. M. Rodrigue, and N. Raz, Extrahippocampal contributions to age differences in human spatial navigation, Cereb Cortex, vol.17, pp.1274-82, 2007.

L. Carelli, M. L. Rusconi, C. Scarabelli, C. Stampatori, F. Mattioli et al., The transfer from survey (map-like) to route representations into virtual reality mazes: effect of age and cerebral lesion, J Neuroeng Rehabil, vol.8, p.6, 2011.

F. Morganti and G. Riva, Virtual reality as allocentric/egocentric technology for the assessment of cognitive decline in the elderly, Stud Health Technol Inform, vol.196, pp.278-84, 2014.

M. A. Harris, J. M. Wiener, and T. Wolbers, Aging specifically impairs switching to an allocentric navigational strategy, Front Aging Neurosci, vol.4, p.29, 2012.
DOI : 10.3389/fnagi.2012.00029

URL : https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2012.00029/pdf

K. Konishi, N. Etchamendy, S. Roy, A. Marighetto, N. Rajah et al., Decreased functional magnetic resonance imaging activity in the hippocampus in favor of the caudate nucleus in older adults tested in a virtual navigation task: navigational strategies in healthy aging, Hippocampus, vol.23, pp.1005-1019, 2013.

K. K. Zakzanis, G. Quintin, and S. J. Graham, Age and dementia related differences in spatial navigation within an immersive virtual environment, Med Sci Monit, vol.15, pp.140-145, 2009.

M. A. Harris and T. Wolbers, How age-related strategy switching deficits affect wayfinding in complex environments, Neurobiol Aging, vol.35, pp.1095-102, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.10.086

M. K. Rodgers, J. A. Sindone, and S. D. Moffat, Effects of age on navigation strategy, Neurobiol Aging, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.07.021

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4283776?pdf=render

I. Liu, R. M. Levy, and J. Barton, Age and gender differences in various topographical orientation strategies, Brain Res, vol.1410, pp.112-121, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.07.005

V. D. Bohbot, S. Mckenzie, K. Konishi, C. Fouquet, V. Kurdi et al., Virtual navigation strategies from childhood to senescence: evidence for changes across the life span, Front Aging Neurosci, vol.4, p.28, 2012.

J. M. Wiener, H. Kmecova, and O. De-condappa, Route repetition and route retracing: effects of cognitive aging, Front Aging Neurosci, vol.4, p.7, 2012.

S. D. Moffat, W. Elkins, and S. M. Resnick, Age differences in the neural systems supporting human allocentric spatial navigation, Neurobiol Aging, vol.27, pp.965-72, 2006.

M. Taillade, H. Sauzé-on, M. Dejos, A. Pala, P. Larrue et al., Executive and memory correlates of age-related differences in wayfinding performances using a virtual reality application, Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, vol.20, pp.298-319, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00907965

M. A. Harris and T. Wolbers, Ageing effects on path integration and landmark navigation, Hippocampus, vol.22, pp.1770-80, 2012.

D. E. Adamo, E. M. Briceñ-o, J. A. Sindone, N. B. Alexander, and S. D. Moffat, Age differences in virtual environment and real world path integration, Front Aging Neurosci, vol.4, p.28, 2012.

O. Mahmood, D. Adamo, E. Briceno, and S. D. Moffat, Age differences in visual path integration, Behav Brain Res, vol.205, pp.88-95, 2009.

. Lö-vdé-n-m, M. Schellenbach, B. Grossman-hutter, A. Krü-ger, and U. Lindenberger, Environmental topography and postural control demands shape aging-associated decrements in spatial navigation performance, Psychol Aging, vol.20, pp.683-94, 2005.

Z. Nedelska, R. Andel, J. Laczó, K. Vlcek, D. Horinek et al., Spatial navigation impairment is proportional to right hippocampal volume, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.109, pp.2590-2594, 2012.

G. Weniger, M. Ruhleder, C. Lange, S. Wolf, and E. Irle, Egocentric and allocentric memory as assessed by virtual reality in individuals with amnestic mild cognitive impairment, Neuropsychologia, vol.49, pp.518-545, 2011.

V. Bellassen, K. Igloi, C. De-souza, and L. , Temporal order memory assessed during spatiotemporal navigation as a behavioral cognitive marker for differential Alzheimer's disease diagnosis, J Neurosci, vol.32, pp.1942-52, 2012.

G. Pengas, K. Patterson, R. J. Arnold, C. M. Bird, N. Burgess et al., Lost and found: bespoke memory testing for Alzheimer's disease and semantic dementia, J Alzheimer Dis, vol.21, p.1347, 2010.

A. O. Caffò, D. Caro, M. F. Picucci, L. Notarnicola, A. Settanni et al., Reorientation deficits are associated with amnestic mild cognitive impairment, Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen, vol.27, pp.321-351, 2012.

I. Tarnanas, N. Laskaris, M. Tsolaki, R. Muri, T. Nef et al., On the comparison of a novel serious game and electroencephalography biomarkers for early dementia screening, GeNeDis, vol.821, pp.63-77, 2015.

R. Kessels, A. Van-doormaal, and G. Janzen, Landmark recognition in Alzheimer's dementia: spared implicit memory for objects relevant for navigation, PloS One, vol.6, p.18611, 2011.

N. Burgess, I. Trinkler, and J. King, Impaired allocentric spatial memory underlying topographical disorientation, Rev Neurosci, vol.17, pp.239-51, 2006.

A. Drzezga, T. Grimmer, M. Peller, M. Wermke, H. Siebner et al., Impaired cross-modal inhibition in Alzheimer disease, PLoS Med, vol.288, 2005.

S. A. Livingstone and R. W. Skelton, Virtual environment navigation tasks and the assessment of cognitive deficits in individuals with brain injury, Behav Brain Res, vol.185, pp.21-31, 2007.

R. W. Skelton, S. P. Ross, L. Nerad, and S. A. Livingstone, Human spatial navigation deficits after traumatic brain injury shown in the arena maze, a virtual Morris water maze, Brain Inj, vol.20, pp.189-203, 2006.

R. Morris, P. Garrud, J. Rawlins, and J. O'keefe, Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions, Nature, vol.297, pp.681-684, 1982.

R. S. Astur, L. B. Taylor, A. N. Mamelak, L. Philpott, and R. J. Sutherland, Humans with hippocampus damage display severe spatial memory impairments in a virtual Morris water task, Behav Brain Res, vol.132, pp.77-84, 2002.

N. J. Goodrich-hunsaker, S. A. Livingstone, R. W. Skelton, and R. O. Hopkins, Spatial deficits in a virtual water maze in amnesic participants with hippocampal damage, Hippocampus, vol.20, pp.481-91, 2010.

G. Weniger, M. Ruhleder, S. Wolf, C. Lange, and E. Irle, Egocentric memory impaired and allocentric memory intact as assessed by virtual reality in subjects with unilateral parietal cortex lesions, Neuropsychologia, vol.47, pp.59-69, 2009.

I. J. Van-der-ham, M. J. Van-zandvoort, T. Meilinger, S. E. Bosch, N. Kant et al., Spatial and temporal aspects of navigation in two neurological patients, NeuroReport, vol.21, pp.685-694, 2010.

S. M. Slobounov, K. Zhang, D. Pennell, W. Ray, B. Johnson et al., Functional abnormalities in normally appearing athletes following mild traumatic brain injury: a functional MRI study, Exp Brain Res, vol.202, pp.341-54, 2010.

L. J. Buxbaum, M. A. Palermo, D. Mastrogiovanni, M. S. Read, E. Rosenberg-pitonyak et al., Assessment of spatial attention and neglect with a virtual wheelchair navigation task, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, vol.30, pp.650-60, 2008.

L. J. Buxbaum, A. M. Dawson, and D. Linsley, Reliability and validity of the Virtual Reality Lateralized Attention Test in assessing hemispatial neglect in righthemisphere stroke, Neuropsychology, vol.26, p.430, 2012.

M. H. Claessen, I. J. Van-der-ham, E. Jagersma, and J. M. Visser-meily, Navigation strategy training using virtual reality in six chronic stroke patients: a novel and explorative approach to the rehabilitation of navigation impairment, Neuropsychol Rehabil, vol.4, pp.1-25, 2015.

M. Caglio, L. Latini-corazzini, D. 'agata, F. Cauda, F. Sacco et al., Virtual navigation for memory rehabilitation in a traumatic brain injured patient, Neurocase, vol.18, pp.123-154, 2012.

G. Weniger and E. Irle, Allocentric memory impaired and egocentric memory intact as assessed by virtual reality in recent-onset schizophrenia, Schizophr Res, vol.101, pp.201-210, 2008.

L. K. Wilkins, T. A. Girard, K. Konishi, M. King, K. A. Herdman et al., Selective deficit in spatial memory strategies contrast to intact response strategies in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders tested in a virtual navigation task, Hippocampus, vol.23, pp.1015-1039, 2013.

E. A. Spieker, R. S. Astur, J. T. West, J. A. Griego, and L. M. Rowland, Spatial memory deficits in a virtual reality eight-arm radial maze in schizophrenia, Schizophr Res, vol.135, pp.84-93, 2012.

A. Ledoux, J. L. Phillips, A. Labelle, A. Smith, V. D. Bohbot et al., Decreased fMRI activity in the hippocampus of patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy control participants, tested on a wayfinding task in a virtual town, Psychiatry research. Neuroimaging, vol.211, pp.47-56, 2013.

J. Siemerkus, E. Irle, C. Schmidt-samoa, P. Dechent, and G. Weniger, Egocentric spatial learning in schizophrenia investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging, NeuroImage Clin, vol.1, pp.153-63, 2012.

A. D. Ekstrom, A. Arnold, and G. Iaria, A critical review of the allocentric spatial representation and its neural underpinnings: toward a network-based perspective, Front Hum Neurosci, vol.8, p.803, 2014.

T. Wolbers and J. M. Wiener, Challenges for identifying the neural mechanisms that support spatial navigation: the impact of spatial scale, Front Hum Neurosci, vol.8, p.571, 2014.

C. F. Doeller, J. A. King, and N. Burgess, Parallel striatal and hippocampal systems for landmarks and boundaries in spatial memory, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.105, pp.5915-5935, 2008.

A. Gomez, M. Cerles, S. Rousset, C. Ré-my, and M. Baciu, Differential hippocampal and retrosplenial involvement in egocentric-updating, rotation, and allocentric processing during online spatial encoding: an fMRI study, Front Hum Neurosci, vol.8, p.150, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00982192

E. Chrastil, Neural evidence supports a novel framework for spatial navigation, Psychon Bull Rev, vol.20, pp.208-235, 2013.

T. Hartley, C. Lever, N. Burgess, and J. O'keefe, Space in the brain: how the hippocampal formation supports spatial cognition, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2014.

S. C. Grant and L. E. Magee, Contributions of proprioception to navigation in virtual environments, J Hum Factors Ergon Soc, vol.40, pp.489-97, 1998.

F. D. Rose, B. M. Brooks, and E. A. Attree, An exploratory investigation into the usability and usefulness of training people with learning disabilities in a virtual environment, Disabil Rehabil, vol.24, pp.627-660, 2002.

B. Williams, G. Narasimham, T. P. Mcnamara, T. H. Carr, J. J. Rieser et al., Updating orientation in large virtual environments using scaled translational gain, Proceedings of the 3rd symposium on applied perception in graphics and visualization, pp.21-29, 2006.

G. Wallet, H. Sauzé-on, P. A. Pala, F. Larrue, X. Zheng et al., Virtual/real transfer of spatial knowledge: benefit from visual fidelity provided in a virtual environment and impact of active navigation, Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw, vol.14, pp.417-440, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00907994

R. A. Ruddle, E. Volkova, and B. Mohler, Bü lthoff HH. The effect of landmark and bodybased sensory information on route knowledge, Memory Cogn, vol.39, pp.686-99, 2011.

F. Larrue, H. Sauzeon, G. Wallet, D. Foloppe, J. R. Cazalets et al., Influence of body-centered information on the transfer of spatial learning from a virtual to a real environment, J Cogn Psychol, vol.26, pp.906-924, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01104040

S. Sangani, J. Fung, R. Kizony, S. T. Koenig, and P. L. Weiss, Navigating and shopping in a complex virtual urban mall to evaluate cognitive functions, Virtual Rehabil, pp.9-14, 2013.

E. R. Chrastil and W. H. Warren, Active and passive contributions to spatial learning, Psychon Bull Rev, vol.19, pp.1-23, 2012.

J. Lloyd, N. V. Persaud, and T. E. Powell, Equivalence of real-world and virtual-reality route learning: a pilot study, Cyberpsychol Behav, vol.12, pp.423-430, 2009.

E. Sorita, N. 'kaoua, B. Larrue, F. Criquillon, J. Simion et al., Do patients with traumatic brain injury learn a route in the same way in real and virtual environments?, Disabil Rehabil, vol.35, pp.1371-1380, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00907949

E. Mellet, L. Laou, L. Petit, L. Zago, B. Mazoyer et al., Impact of the virtual reality on the neural representation of an environment, Hum Brain Mapp, vol.31, pp.1065-75, 2010.

P. Fuchs, Les interfaces de la ré alité virtuelle. E ´ diteur AJIIMD, vol.1996, pp.2-9509954

R. P. Darken and J. L. Sibert, Navigating large virtual spaces, Int J Hum Comput Interact, vol.8, pp.49-71, 1996.

M. Sjö-linder, K. Hö-o-¨-k, L. Nilsson, and G. Andersson, Age differences and the acquisition of spatial knowledge in a three-dimensional environment: evaluating the use of an overview map as a navigation aid, Int J Hum Comput Stud, vol.63, pp.537-64, 2005.

A. Parush and D. Berman, Navigation and orientation in 3D user interfaces: the impact of navigation aids and landmarks, Int J Hum Comput Stud, vol.61, pp.375-95, 2004.

S. Burigat and L. Chittaro, Navigation in 3D virtual environments: effects of user experience and location-pointing navigation aids, Int J Hum Comput Stud, vol.65, pp.945-58, 2007.

M. Boggus and R. Crawfils, Distance field illumination: a rendering method to aid in navigation of virtual environments, ISVC, vol.6454, pp.501-511, 2010.

N. Andersen, L. Dahmani, K. Konishi, and V. Bohbot, Eye tracking, strategies, and sex differences in virtual navigation, Neurobiol Learn Memory, vol.97, pp.81-90, 2012.

H. J. Broadbent, E. K. Farran, and A. Tolmie, Sequential egocentric navigation and reliance on landmarks in Williams syndrome and typical development, Front Psychol, vol.25, p.216, 2015.

D. Van-der-brink and G. Janzen, Visual spatial cue use for guiding orientation in twoto-three-year-old children, Front Psychol, vol.4, p.904, 2015.

, REHAB-948; No. of Pages 13

M. Cogné, The contribution of virtual reality to the diagnosis of spatial navigation disorders and to the study of the role of navigational aids: A systematic literature review, Ann Phys Rehabil Med, 2016.

S. Fickas, M. Sohlberg, and P. Hung, Route-following assistance for travelers with cognitive impairments: a comparison of four prompt modes, Int J Hum Comput Stud, vol.66, pp.876-88, 2008.

M. M. Sohlberg, S. Fickas, P. F. Hung, and A. Fortier, A comparison of four prompt modes for route finding for community travellers with severe cognitive impairments, Brain Inj, vol.21, pp.531-539, 2007.

B. N. Walker and J. Lindsay, Using virtual environments to prototype auditory navigation displays, Assist Technol, vol.17, pp.72-81, 2005.

N. Degara, T. Kuppanda, T. Neate, J. Yang, and A. V. Torres, Reproducible sonification for virtual navigation, lIEEE VR Workshop: sonic interaction in virtual environments. 07006288, pp.35-40, 2014.

A. Sorkin, D. Weinshall, I. Modai, and A. Peled, Improving the accuracy of the diagnosis of schizophrenia by means of virtual reality, Am J Psychiatry, vol.163, pp.512-532, 2006.

C. Ardito, M. Costabile, A. Angeli, and F. Pittarello, Navigation help in 3D worlds: some empirical evidences on use of sound, Multimedia Tools Appl, vol.33, pp.201-217, 2007.

C. C. Smyth, Sensitivity of Subjective Questionnaires to cognitive loading while driving with navigation aids: a pilot study, Aviat Space Environ Med, vol.78, issue.5, 2007.

I. Viaud-delmon and O. Warusfel, From ear to body: the auditory-motor loop in spatial cognition, Front Neurosci, vol.8, p.283, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01265285

J. Sanchez, M. Saenz, A. Pascual-leone, and L. Merabet, Enhancing navigation skills through audio gaming, Ext Abstr Hum Factors Computing Syst, pp.3991-4000, 2010.

A. Afonso, A. Blum, B. Katz, and P. Tarroux, Structural properties of spatial representations in blind people: Scanning images constructed from haptic exploration or from locomotion in a 3-D audio virtual environment, Memory Cogn, vol.38, pp.591-604, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01780521

S. Maidenbaum, S. Levy-tzedek, D. Chebat, and A. Amedi, Increasing accessibility to the blind of virtual environments, using a virtual mobility aid based on the ''eyecane'': feasibility study, Plos One, vol.8, p.72555, 2013.

J. Yi, H. C. Lee, R. Parsons, and T. Falkmer, The effect of the global positioning system on the driving performance of people with mild Alzheimer's disease, Gerontology, vol.61, pp.79-88, 2015.

G. A. Riley and P. A. Venn, Comparison of automatic and intentional instructions when using the method of vanishing cues in acquired brain injury, Neuropsychol Rehabil, vol.25, pp.53-81, 2015.

N. Lavie, A. Hirst, J. W. De-fockert, and E. Viding, Load theory of selective attention and cognitive control, J Exp Psychol Gen, vol.133, pp.339-54, 2004.

B. J. Stankiewicz and A. A. Kalia, Acquisition of structural versus object landmark knowledge, J Expl Psychol Hum Percept Perform, vol.33, pp.378-90, 2007.

D. Caduff and S. Timpf, On the assessment of landmark salience for human navigation, Cogn Process, vol.9, pp.249-67, 2008.

G. Janzen and M. Van-turennout, Selective neural representation of objects relevant for navigation, Nat Neurosci, vol.7, pp.673-680, 2004.

X. Han, P. Byrne, M. Kahana, and S. Becker, When do objects become landmarks? A VR study of the effect of task relevance on spatial memory, PLoS One, vol.7, p.35940, 2012.